Overview
This reference table covers all essential vitamins and minerals — the micronutrients required for life that the body cannot synthesize in adequate quantities. Each entry includes the nutrient's primary biological roles, hallmark deficiency signs, best dietary sources, recommended supplement forms, and general dosing ranges for repletion and optimization.
This is a living clinical reference, not a substitute for individualized assessment. Optimal intake varies by age, sex, health status, genetics, and co-existing nutrient interactions. Always interpret supplementation in the context of a full nutrient panel and clinical picture.
Fat-Soluble Vitamins
Stored in adipose tissue and liver; toxicity possible with excessive supplementation.
| Nutrient | Key Roles | Deficiency Signs | Best Food Sources | Supplement Forms | Dosing Range |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vitamin A | Vision (rhodopsin synthesis), immune function, epithelial integrity, gene expression, embryonic development | Night blindness, xerophthalmia, increased infection susceptibility, poor wound healing, follicular hyperkeratosis | Liver, cod liver oil, egg yolks, dairy; beta-carotene from sweet potato, carrots, leafy greens | Retinyl palmitate, retinyl acetate (preformed); beta-carotene (provitamin A) | RDA: 700–900 mcg RAE/day; therapeutic: 2,500–10,000 IU/day preformed; UL: 3,000 mcg RAE/day (preformed) |
| Vitamin D3 | Calcium/phosphorus homeostasis, bone mineralization, immune modulation, gene expression (2,000+ genes), hormone precursor, neuromuscular function | Rickets (children), osteomalacia (adults), muscle weakness, increased infection risk, depression, fatigue, autoimmune dysregulation | Fatty fish (salmon, mackerel, sardines), cod liver oil, egg yolks, UV-exposed mushrooms; primarily synthesized via UVB skin exposure | Cholecalciferol (D3) preferred over ergocalciferol (D2); pair with vitamin K2 (MK-7) | Maintenance: 2,000–5,000 IU/day; repletion (deficiency): 5,000–10,000 IU/day; target serum 25(OH)D: 50–80 ng/mL; UL: 4,000 IU/day (conservative); clinical use up to 10,000 IU/day with monitoring |
| Vitamin E | Lipid-soluble antioxidant, membrane protection, immune function, platelet aggregation inhibition, gene regulation | Peripheral neuropathy, ataxia, hemolytic anemia, retinopathy; isolated deficiency rare — seen in fat malabsorption syndromes | Wheat germ oil, sunflower seeds, almonds, hazelnuts, avocado, olive oil, leafy greens | Mixed tocopherols (alpha + gamma) preferred over alpha-tocopherol alone; tocotrienols for advanced antioxidant support | RDA: 15 mg/day; therapeutic: 200–800 IU/day mixed tocopherols; UL: 1,000 mg/day; caution with anticoagulants at higher doses |
| Vitamin K | Coagulation factor activation (K1), calcium regulation and arterial calcification prevention (K2 MK-7), bone matrix protein carboxylation (osteocalcin) | K1: impaired coagulation, easy bruising, prolonged PT; K2: subclinical arterial calcification, poor bone mineralization | K1: leafy greens (kale, spinach, broccoli); K2: natto (highest), hard cheeses, egg yolks, grass-fed butter, liver | K1 (phylloquinone) for coagulation; K2 MK-7 (menaquinone-7) for cardiovascular and bone — preferred long-acting form | K1 RDA: 90–120 mcg/day; K2 MK-7 therapeutic: 100–360 mcg/day; always pair with vitamin D3; caution with warfarin (K1) |
Water-Soluble Vitamins
Not stored significantly; excess excreted in urine; toxicity rare (exceptions: B6, niacin).
| Nutrient | Key Roles | Deficiency Signs | Best Food Sources | Supplement Forms | Dosing Range |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vitamin C | Collagen synthesis, antioxidant, immune function (neutrophil activity, interferon production), iron absorption enhancement, neurotransmitter synthesis (dopamine, norepinephrine), adrenal function | Scurvy (perifollicular hemorrhage, gum disease, poor wound healing), fatigue, frequent infections, easy bruising | Bell peppers, citrus, kiwi, strawberries, broccoli, guava, papaya | Ascorbic acid; buffered forms (sodium/calcium ascorbate) for GI sensitivity; liposomal C for high-dose protocols | RDA: 75–90 mg/day; therapeutic: 500–2,000 mg/day; bowel tolerance dosing for acute illness; UL: 2,000 mg/day (GI tolerance) |
| Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) | Carbohydrate metabolism (pyruvate dehydrogenase, alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase), nerve conduction, myelin synthesis, cardiac function | Beriberi (wet: cardiac; dry: neurological), Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome (alcohol-related), peripheral neuropathy, fatigue, cognitive impairment | Pork, legumes, whole grains, nutritional yeast, sunflower seeds | Thiamine HCl (standard); benfotiamine (fat-soluble, superior CNS and peripheral nerve penetration); TTFD for advanced neurological support | RDA: 1.1–1.2 mg/day; therapeutic: 50–300 mg/day; benfotiamine: 150–600 mg/day for neuropathy and metabolic support |
| Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) | FAD/FMN cofactor in electron transport chain, fatty acid oxidation, glutathione recycling, B6 and folate activation, mitochondrial function | Ariboflavinosis: angular cheilitis, glossitis, seborrheic dermatitis, photophobia, corneal vascularization, normocytic anemia | Liver, dairy, eggs, lean meats, almonds, leafy greens, nutritional yeast | Riboflavin (standard); riboflavin-5-phosphate (active form, preferred for MTHFR variants and malabsorption) | RDA: 1.1–1.3 mg/day; therapeutic: 25–400 mg/day; 400 mg/day riboflavin is evidence-based for migraine prophylaxis |
| Vitamin B3 (Niacin) | NAD+/NADH and NADP+/NADPH cofactor in 400+ redox reactions, DNA repair (PARP), energy metabolism, cholesterol regulation, sirtuin activation | Pellagra (4 Ds: dermatitis, diarrhea, dementia, death); subclinical: fatigue, cognitive decline, poor NAD+ status, accelerated aging | Liver, chicken, tuna, turkey, peanuts, nutritional yeast, mushrooms | Nicotinic acid (flush; lipid-lowering); niacinamide/nicotinamide (no flush; preferred for NAD+ repletion, skin); NMN and NR (NAD+ precursors for longevity protocols) | RDA: 14–16 mg NE/day; therapeutic niacinamide: 500–1,500 mg/day; nicotinic acid for lipids: 1,000–3,000 mg/day (medical supervision); UL: 35 mg/day (nicotinic acid flush threshold) |
| Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic Acid) | Coenzyme A synthesis (central to fatty acid metabolism, Krebs cycle, acetylcholine synthesis), adrenal cortex function, steroid hormone synthesis | Rare in isolation; burning feet syndrome, fatigue, adrenal insufficiency, poor stress tolerance, impaired wound healing | Liver, sunflower seeds, mushrooms, avocado, sweet potato, eggs, legumes | Calcium pantothenate (standard); pantethine (active form; lipid-lowering properties) | AI: 5 mg/day; therapeutic: 250–1,000 mg/day; pantethine 600–900 mg/day for lipid support |
| Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) | Amino acid metabolism (transamination), neurotransmitter synthesis (serotonin, dopamine, GABA, norepinephrine), heme synthesis, immune function, homocysteine metabolism | Peripheral neuropathy, seborrheic dermatitis, glossitis, depression, irritability, confusion, microcytic anemia, elevated homocysteine | Poultry, fish, potatoes, bananas, chickpeas, liver, nutritional yeast | Pyridoxine HCl (standard); pyridoxal-5-phosphate (P5P, active form — preferred for those with impaired conversion, MTHFR variants) | RDA: 1.3–1.7 mg/day; therapeutic: 25–100 mg/day P5P; UL: 100 mg/day (peripheral neuropathy risk at chronic high doses of pyridoxine HCl) |
| Vitamin B7 (Biotin) | Carboxylase enzyme cofactor (fatty acid synthesis, gluconeogenesis, amino acid catabolism), gene expression, keratin infrastructure | Hair thinning/loss, brittle nails, seborrheic dermatitis, neurological symptoms; isolated deficiency rare; raw egg white consumption (avidin) blocks absorption | Liver, egg yolks, salmon, dairy, nuts, seeds, sweet potato | D-biotin (standard form) | AI: 30 mcg/day; therapeutic for hair/nails: 2,500–10,000 mcg/day; note: high-dose biotin interferes with thyroid and troponin immunoassays |
| Vitamin B9 (Folate) | One-carbon metabolism, DNA synthesis and repair, methylation (with B12), neural tube development, homocysteine remethylation, red blood cell maturation | Megaloblastic anemia, neural tube defects (periconceptional deficiency), elevated homocysteine, glossitis, depression, cognitive decline | Liver, leafy greens (spinach, romaine), legumes, asparagus, avocado, broccoli, nutritional yeast | Methylfolate (5-MTHF) — active form, essential for MTHFR C677T/A1298C variants; avoid folic acid (synthetic, unmetabolized folic acid accumulation risk) | RDA: 400 mcg DFE/day; pregnancy: 600 mcg DFE/day; therapeutic: 400–1,000 mcg 5-MTHF/day; UL: 1,000 mcg/day (synthetic folic acid) |
| Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin) | Methylation (methionine synthase), myelin synthesis, DNA synthesis, red blood cell maturation, neurological function, homocysteine metabolism | Megaloblastic anemia, subacute combined degeneration of the spinal cord, peripheral neuropathy, cognitive decline, depression, elevated homocysteine and MMA | Liver, clams, oysters, beef, sardines, eggs, dairy; absent from plant foods (vegans require supplementation) | Methylcobalamin (preferred for neurological support and MTHFR variants); adenosylcobalamin (mitochondrial form); hydroxocobalamin (depot form, used IM); cyanocobalamin (synthetic, least preferred) | RDA: 2.4 mcg/day; therapeutic oral: 500–2,000 mcg/day methylcobalamin; IM hydroxocobalamin for severe deficiency or malabsorption; no established UL |
Macrominerals
Required in amounts >100 mg/day; major roles in structural, electrolyte, and enzymatic functions.
| Nutrient | Key Roles | Deficiency Signs | Best Food Sources | Supplement Forms | Dosing Range |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Calcium | Bone and tooth mineralization (99% of body calcium), muscle contraction, nerve transmission, blood clotting, enzyme activation, intracellular signaling | Hypocalcemia: muscle cramps, tetany, paresthesias, seizures; long-term: osteopenia, osteoporosis, dental decay | Dairy, sardines/salmon with bones, leafy greens (kale, bok choy), tofu, almonds, fortified foods | Calcium citrate (best absorbed, especially without food, preferred for low stomach acid); calcium carbonate (requires stomach acid, take with food) | RDA: 1,000–1,200 mg/day; supplement only the gap between dietary intake and RDA; UL: 2,000–2,500 mg/day; always pair with vitamin D3 and K2 MK-7 |
| Magnesium | 300+ enzymatic reactions, ATP synthesis (Mg-ATP complex), neuromuscular function, HPA axis regulation, DNA repair, protein synthesis, calcium channel antagonism | Muscle cramps, anxiety, insomnia, palpitations, hypertension, constipation, migraines, insulin resistance, fatigue | Pumpkin seeds, dark leafy greens, almonds, black beans, avocado, dark chocolate, whole grains | Glycinate (anxiety/sleep); malate (energy/fatigue); threonate (cognitive/neurological); citrate (constipation); avoid oxide (4% bioavailability) | RDA: 310–420 mg/day; therapeutic: 200–600 mg elemental/day divided; UL: 350 mg/day from supplements; RBC magnesium preferred for assessment |
| Phosphorus | Bone mineralization (hydroxyapatite with calcium), ATP and phospholipid synthesis, acid-base buffering, DNA/RNA backbone, cell signaling | Hypophosphatemia: muscle weakness, bone pain, hemolytic anemia, respiratory failure; isolated dietary deficiency rare in Western diets | Meat, poultry, fish, dairy, eggs, legumes, nuts, whole grains | Supplementation rarely needed; sodium or potassium phosphate used clinically for severe hypophosphatemia | RDA: 700 mg/day; UL: 4,000 mg/day; excess phosphorus (from processed foods) impairs calcium absorption and bone health |
| Potassium | Primary intracellular cation, membrane potential (Na+/K+-ATPase), muscle contraction, cardiac rhythm, blood pressure regulation, renal acid-base balance | Hypokalemia: muscle weakness, cramps, fatigue, constipation, cardiac arrhythmias, hypertension; often co-depleted with magnesium | Avocado, sweet potato, banana, leafy greens, coconut water, beans, salmon, dairy | Potassium citrate (preferred; alkalinizing); potassium chloride; potassium gluconate; supplements limited to 99 mg/dose in U.S. (GI/cardiac safety) | AI: 2,600–3,400 mg/day from food; supplement cautiously; always address magnesium deficiency concurrently; avoid high-dose supplements without medical supervision |
| Sodium | Primary extracellular cation, ECF volume and osmolality, nerve impulse transmission, nutrient co-transport, blood pressure regulation (RAAS axis) | Hyponatremia: nausea, headache, confusion, seizures, coma; chronic: falls, osteoporosis, cognitive impairment | Salt (NaCl), processed foods, seafood, dairy; Himalayan/Celtic salt provides trace minerals | Sodium chloride (electrolyte products); oral rehydration salts; electrolyte powders for athletes | AI: 1,500 mg/day; typical intake 3,400 mg/day; athletes may need 500–1,000 mg/hour during prolonged exercise; optimize Na:K ratio rather than restricting sodium alone |
| Chloride | Primary extracellular anion, gastric acid (HCl) production, fluid balance, nerve impulse transmission, chloride-bicarbonate exchange | Hypochloremia: metabolic alkalosis, muscle weakness, impaired digestion; usually accompanies sodium or potassium depletion | Table salt, seafood, olives, seaweed, tomatoes, celery | Sodium chloride or potassium chloride (electrolyte products) | AI: 2,300 mg/day; no isolated supplementation typically needed; address via electrolyte balance |
| Sulfur | Structural component of amino acids (methionine, cysteine), glutathione synthesis, detoxification (phase II liver), connective tissue (chondroitin sulfate, glucosamine sulfate), insulin structure | No established deficiency syndrome; low cysteine/methionine impairs glutathione production and detoxification capacity | Eggs, meat, poultry, fish, cruciferous vegetables (broccoli, Brussels sprouts, garlic, onions) | MSM (methylsulfonylmethane) for joint and connective tissue support; NAC (N-acetyl cysteine) for glutathione precursor | MSM: 1,000–3,000 mg/day; NAC: 600–1,800 mg/day for glutathione support and mucolytic effects |
Trace Minerals
Required in amounts <100 mg/day; essential for enzymatic, hormonal, and antioxidant functions.
| Nutrient | Key Roles | Deficiency Signs | Best Food Sources | Supplement Forms | Dosing Range |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Iron | Hemoglobin and myoglobin oxygen transport, electron transport chain (cytochromes), DNA synthesis (ribonucleotide reductase), immune function, dopamine receptor function | Microcytic hypochromic anemia, fatigue, dyspnea, pallor, restless legs syndrome, cognitive impairment, poor immune function; pre-anemic deficiency impairs mitochondrial function | Liver, red meat, oysters, clams, dark poultry; non-heme: lentils, spinach, tofu, pumpkin seeds (pair with vitamin C) | Ferrous bisglycinate (highest bioavailability, best tolerated); ferrous sulfate (standard clinical); liposomal iron (emerging); avoid ferric oxide | RDA: 8 mg/day (men/postmenopausal women), 18 mg/day (premenopausal women), 27 mg/day (pregnancy); therapeutic: 15–200 mg elemental/day; alternate-day dosing optimizes absorption |
| Zinc | 300+ enzymatic reactions, 1,000+ transcription factors, immune function (T-cell maturation, NK cells), testosterone biosynthesis, insulin storage, wound healing, antioxidant (Cu/Zn-SOD), DNA synthesis | Frequent infections, poor wound healing, anosmia/ageusia, alopecia, acne, low testosterone, infertility, growth retardation, depression | Oysters (highest), red meat, crab, poultry, pumpkin seeds, hemp seeds, legumes, cashews | Bisglycinate (best bioavailability, preferred); picolinate; citrate; gluconate/acetate lozenges (immune); avoid oxide | RDA: 8–11 mg/day; therapeutic: 15–40 mg/day; UL: 40 mg/day; balance with copper (1–2 mg per 15–25 mg zinc) for long-term use |
| Copper | Cu/Zn-SOD antioxidant defense, iron metabolism (ceruloplasmin), collagen cross-linking (lysyl oxidase), neurotransmitter synthesis (dopamine beta-hydroxylase), mitochondrial function (cytochrome c oxidase), immune function | Anemia (iron-resistant), neutropenia, osteoporosis, peripheral neuropathy, depigmentation of hair/skin, impaired wound healing; often induced by excess zinc supplementation | Liver, oysters, shellfish, dark chocolate, nuts (cashews, almonds), seeds, legumes, mushrooms | Copper bisglycinate or copper glycinate (preferred); copper citrate; avoid copper sulfate (GI irritation) | RDA: 900 mcg/day; therapeutic: 1–3 mg/day; always balance with zinc; UL: 10 mg/day |
| Selenium | Selenoprotein synthesis (25 known selenoproteins), glutathione peroxidase (antioxidant), thyroid hormone metabolism (deiodinase enzymes T4→T3 conversion), immune function, DNA repair, anti-cancer mechanisms | Keshan disease (cardiomyopathy), Kashin-Beck disease (osteoarthropathy), hypothyroidism (impaired T4→T3 conversion), poor antioxidant defense, increased cancer risk | Brazil nuts (1–2/day provides RDA), seafood, organ meats, poultry, eggs, whole grains (soil-dependent) | Selenomethionine (organic, best absorbed and retained); sodium selenite (inorganic, used clinically); SelenoExcell (high-selenium yeast) | RDA: 55 mcg/day; therapeutic: 100–200 mcg/day; UL: 400 mcg/day (selenosis risk above); 200 mcg/day selenomethionine for thyroid and immune support |
| Iodine | Thyroid hormone synthesis (T3 and T4), metabolic rate regulation, fetal brain development, antioxidant function in breast and other tissues, immune modulation | Hypothyroidism, goiter, cretinism (severe fetal deficiency), cognitive impairment, fatigue, weight gain, fibrocystic breast changes | Seaweed (nori, kelp — variable), seafood, dairy, eggs, iodized salt | Potassium iodide (standard); Lugol's solution (iodine + potassium iodide, higher dose protocols); nascent iodine | RDA: 150 mcg/day; pregnancy: 220 mcg/day; therapeutic: 150–500 mcg/day; UL: 1,100 mcg/day; high-dose iodine (Lugol's) requires clinical supervision and thyroid monitoring |
| Manganese | Mitochondrial antioxidant (Mn-SOD), bone formation, carbohydrate metabolism (pyruvate carboxylase), collagen synthesis, neurotransmitter metabolism | Rare; impaired bone growth, poor wound healing, altered carbohydrate metabolism, reproductive dysfunction | Whole grains, legumes, nuts, seeds, leafy greens, tea, pineapple, mussels | Manganese bisglycinate or citrate (preferred); avoid manganese sulfate | AI: 1.8–2.3 mg/day; therapeutic: 2–5 mg/day; UL: 11 mg/day; excess manganese is neurotoxic (manganism) |
| Chromium | Potentiates insulin signaling (chromodulin), glucose metabolism, lipid metabolism, macronutrient metabolism | Impaired glucose tolerance, insulin resistance, elevated triglycerides; isolated deficiency rare | Broccoli, whole grains, meat, brewer's yeast, green beans, grape juice | Chromium picolinate (most studied); chromium polynicotinate (GTF chromium) | AI: 20–35 mcg/day; therapeutic for insulin resistance: 200–1,000 mcg/day chromium picolinate; no established UL |
| Molybdenum | Cofactor for sulfite oxidase, xanthine oxidase, and aldehyde oxidase — essential for sulfur amino acid metabolism, uric acid production, and detoxification | Extremely rare; sulfite sensitivity, neurological symptoms; seen in total parenteral nutrition without supplementation | Legumes, whole grains, nuts, leafy vegetables, liver | Sodium molybdate or ammonium molybdate (clinical); molybdenum glycinate (supplement) | RDA: 45 mcg/day; UL: 2,000 mcg/day; supplementation rarely needed outside clinical deficiency |
| Fluoride | Dental enamel hardening, bone mineral density support | Dental caries, weakened enamel | Fluoridated water, tea, seafood | Sodium fluoride (dental products, prescription supplements) | AI: 3–4 mg/day; UL: 10 mg/day; excess causes fluorosis (dental mottling, skeletal fluorosis) |
| Boron | Bone metabolism (enhances vitamin D and estrogen activity), testosterone metabolism, cognitive function, anti-inflammatory effects; not officially classified as essential but evidence supports physiological roles | No established deficiency syndrome; low intake associated with impaired bone density, reduced testosterone, and cognitive decline | Prunes, raisins, avocado, almonds, peanuts, legumes, wine | Boron citrate, boron glycinate, calcium fructoborate | No established RDA; therapeutic: 3–10 mg/day; UL: 20 mg/day |
| Silicon | Connective tissue integrity (collagen and elastin cross-linking), bone mineralization, skin, hair, and nail structure | No established deficiency syndrome; low intake associated with poor connective tissue quality and bone density | Whole grains, oats, barley, bananas, green beans, mineral water | Orthosilicic acid (most bioavailable); bamboo extract; horsetail extract | No established RDA; therapeutic: 10–30 mg/day orthosilicic acid |
Key Clinical Principles
- Test, don't guess: A comprehensive micronutrient panel (serum, RBC, functional markers) is the foundation of targeted repletion. Avoid blanket supplementation without baseline assessment.
- Nutrient interactions matter: Zinc depletes copper; calcium competes with magnesium and iron; vitamin D requires magnesium for activation; folate and B12 must be balanced; fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) interact at absorption and receptor levels.
- Form determines bioavailability: Chelated mineral forms (bisglycinate, picolinate, citrate) consistently outperform inorganic forms (oxide, sulfate, carbonate) for absorption and tolerability.
- Active vs. synthetic forms: Methylfolate over folic acid; methylcobalamin over cyanocobalamin; P5P over pyridoxine HCl; D3 over D2; K2 MK-7 over K1 for cardiovascular protection.
- Cofactor cascades: Magnesium is required for vitamin D activation, potassium repletion, and ATP synthesis. Vitamin D is required for calcium absorption. Iron requires vitamin C for non-heme absorption. These cascades mean isolated repletion often fails without addressing upstream cofactors.
- Timing and context: Fat-soluble vitamins with fat-containing meals; iron away from calcium, tea, and coffee; zinc away from high-phytate meals; B vitamins in the morning (energizing); magnesium in the evening (calming).
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